| Synopsis of medicinal plants used in the management of malaria in Kenya | ||||
| Omara T. Antimalarial Plants Used across Kenyan Communities. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2020:4538602. PMID: 32617107 | ||||
| Plant | Part used | Extracting solvent | Antiplasmodial (IC50 μg/ml)/antimalarial activity (Plasmodium strain) | Active phytochemicals and toxicity information |
| Justicia betonica L. | Shoot | Methanol, water, ether | 69.6 (K39), >100 (K39), 13.36 μg/ml | Justetonin (indole(3,2-b) quinoline alkaloid glycoside) |
| Allium sativum L. | Synthetic | Ethanol | 50 mg/kg of ajoene suppressed development of parasitemia; ajoene (50 mg/kg) and chloroquine (4.5 mg/kg), given as a single dose, prevented development of parasitemia | Ajoene, nontoxic |
| Acmella caulirhiza | Whole plant | Dichloromethane | 9.939 (D6); 5.201 (W2) | No reports |
| Aloe kedongensis Reynolds | Leaves | Methanol | 87.7 (D6); 67.8 (W2) | Anthrone, C-glucoside homonataloin, anthraquinones, aloin, lectins |
| Aloe secundiflora Eng. | Leaf exudate | Tested direct | 66.20 (K39) | No reports |
| Achyranthes aspera L. | Leaf, stem, roots, seeds | Ethanol | >100, 76.75, >100, >100 μg/ml | Alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, triterpenoids |
| Artemisia annua L. | Leaves | Water | 1.1 (D10), 0.9 (W2) | Sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene lactones including artemisinin; safe and effective; artemisinin is safe for pregnant women |
| Bidens pilosa L. | Leaves | Dichloromethane, chloroform, water, and methanol | 8.5, 5, 11, 70 (D10) | No reports |
| Maytenus undata (Thunb.) Blakelock | Leaves | Dichloromethane, dichloromethane/chloroform (1 : 1), methanol, water | >100, 21, 60, >100 (D10) | No reports |
| Stem | Dichloromethane, dichloromethane/chloroform (1 : 1), methanol, water | 85, 24, 38, >100 (D10) | ||
| Roots | Dichloromethane, chloroform, methanol, water | 23, 36, 40, >100 (D10) | ||
| Rhus natalensis Bernh. ex Krauss | Stem bark, leaves | Ethanol | >50 (FcB1) | Triterpenoids |
| Leaves, roots | Methanol | 43.92 (D6), 51.2 (W2); >100 (D6), 80.44 (W2) | ||
| Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl | Stem bark, root bark, roots | Dichloromethane, chloroform, water, and methanol | 33 (D10), 6.41 (D6), >250, 148.53 and >250, >250 against ENT 30, and NF 54, respectively | Lignan, nortrachelogenin, cytotoxicity IC50 > 20, LD50 of 260.34, and 186.71 μg/ml for water and methanol extracts |
| Euphorbia tirucalli L. | Leaves | Dichloromethane, dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1), methanol, water | 12, 23.5, >100, 83 (D10) | No reports |
| Psiadia punctulata | Twigs | Dichloromethane, water | 9, >100 (D10) | No reports |
| Leaves | Dichloromethane, dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1), water | 14, 22.5, >100 (D10) | ||
| Whole plant | Dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1), water | 18 (D10), >100 (D10) | ||
| Ricinus communis L. | Leaves | Dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1), water | 27.5, >100 (D10) | No reports |
| Stems | Dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1), water | 8, >100 (D10) | ||
| Fruit | Dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1), water | 90, >100 (D10) | ||
| Catharanthus roseus G. Don | Leaves | Methanol | 4.6 (D6); 5.3 (W2) | Has neurotoxic alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, sesquiterpenes |
| Caesalpinia volkensii Harms | Leaves | Decoction, ethanol, petroleum ether, methanol, water | 480, 481, 490, 858, 404 (FCA: 20 GHA), 923, 960, 250, 961, 563 (W2) | No reports |
| Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd | Leaves | Methanol | 9.1 (, D6); 3.9 (W2) | Acacetin, genkwanin, 7-methoxyacacetin; cytotoxicity observed in Vero cells |
| Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) O. Ktze | Leaves | Chloroform, dichloromethane | <5 (both NF54 and FCR3) | E-Phytol, 6e-geranylgeraniol-19-oic acid; cytotoxic to human foetal lung fibroblast cell lines |
| Cucumis aculeatus Cogn | Fruit | Water | >30 | No reports |
| Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) | Whole plant | Water | 22.5 (D6); 51.8 (W2) | Schkuhrin I and schkuhrin II; methanol extract: low cytotoxicity against human cells; aqueous extracts: no toxicity observed in mice |
| Solanecio mannii (Hook. f.) C. Jeffrey | Leaves | Methanol | 21.6 (3D7); 26.2 (W2) | Phytosterols, n-alkanes, and N-hexacosanol |
| Tagetes minuta L. | Leaves | Ethyl acetate | 61.0% inhibition at 10 μg/ml | No reports |
| Tithonia diversifolia A. Gray | Leaves, aerial parts | Methanol, ether | 1.2 (3D7), 1.5 (W2), methanolic extract had 74% parasitemia suppression | Tagitinin C and sesquiterpene lactones; aerial parts are cytotoxic against cells from the human foetal lung fibroblast cell line. |
| Vernonia amygdalina Del. | Leaves | Methanol/dichloromethane, ethanol | 2.7 (K1), 9.83. In vivo parasite suppression of between 57.2 and 72.7% in combination with chloroquine | Vernolepin, vernolin, vernolide, vernodalin and hydroxy vernodalin, and steroid glucosides; petroleum ether extract shows strong cytotoxicity |
| Vernonia auriculifera (Welw.) Hiern | Leaves | Ethane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, water | >100, 37.7, 40.3, 55.2, >100 (K39) | No reports |
| Vernonia brachycalyx O. Hoffm. Schreber | Leaves | Chloroform/ethyl acetate, methanol | 6.6, 31.2 (K39) 29.6, 30.2 (V1/S) | 5-Methylcoumarin isomers, 16,17-dihydrobrachycalyxoloid |
| Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm. | Leaves | Methanol | 44.3 (D6); 52.4 (W2) | Sesquiterpene lactones, polysaccharides |
| Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K. Schum. | Leaves | Ethyl acetate | 71% inhibition of P. falciparum at 10 μg/ml | Phenylpropanoid glycosides, cycloartane triterpenoids, musambins A-C, Candmusambiosides A-C |
| Spathodea campanulata | Stem bark, leaves | Ethyl acetate, ethanol | 28.9% inhibition of P. falciparum | Quinone (lapachol) |
| Cassia didymobotrya Fres. | Leaves | Methanol | 23.4 (D6); undetectable (W2) | Alkaloids |
| Warbugia ugandensis Sprague | Stem bark | Methanol, water | 6.4 (D6); 6.9 (W2), 12.9 (D6); 15.6 (W2) | Coloratane sesquiterpenes, e.g., muzigadiolide |
| Dichloromethane | 69% parasite inhibition | |||
| Carica papaya L. | Leaves | Ethyl acetate | 2.96 (D10), 3.98 (DD2) | Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, glycosides; no serious toxicity reported; carpaine, an active compound against P. falciparum had high selectivity and was nontoxic to normal red blood cells |
| Maytenus senegalensis | Roots | Ethanol | 1.9 (D6), 2.4 (W2) | Terpenoids, pentacyclic triterpenes, e.g., pristimerin; no toxicity observed in ethanol extract |
| Ethulia scheffleri S.Moore | Leaves | Chloroform/ethyl acetate/methanol | 49.8 (K39), 32.2 (V1/S) | No reports |
| Combretum molle G. Don | Stem bark | Acetone | 8.2 (3D7) | Phenolics, punicalagin |
| Momordica foetida Schumach | Shoot | Water | 6.16 (NF54); 0.35 (FCR3) | Saponins, alkaloid, and cardiac glycosides; no pronounced toxicity against human hepatocellular (HepG2) and human urinary bladder carcinoma (ECV-304, derivative of T-24) cells |
| Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach | Leaves | Methanol | 7.8 (D6); 11.3 (W2) | Diterpenes |
| Croton macrostachyus Olive. | Leaves | Chloroform, dichloromethane | Chemotherapeutic effect of 66–82%, 2 (D6) | Triterpenoids including lupeol |
| Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd) Voigt | Leaves | Water/methanol | 2.0 (W2) | Bergenin, nontoxic, extracts exposed to murine macrophages did not slow or inhibit growth of cells |
| Erythrina abyssinica Lam. | Stem bark | Ethyl acetate | 83.6% inhibition of P. falciparum at 10 μg/ml | Chalcones (5-prenylbutein and homobutein), flavanones including 5-deoxyabyssinin II, abyssinin III, and abyssinone IV |
| Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth | Bark, fruit | Chloroform/ethyl acetate, methanol | 59.9 (K39), 83.8 (V1/S); fruits had 165.9 (K39) | No reports |
| Trichilia emetica Vahl | Leaves, twigs | Dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1) | 3.5 for all (D10) | Kurubasch aldehyde |
| Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby | Leaves, twigs | Methanol, dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1) | >100 (K39), 9.5 (D10) | Quinones |
| Tamarindus indica L. | Stem bark | Water | 25.1% chemosuppressive activity at 10 mg/kg (P. berghei) | Saponins (leaves), tannins (fruits) |
| Harungana madagascariensis Lam. | Stem bark | Water, ethanol | 9.64 (K1); <0.5 with 28.6–44.8% parasite suppression | Quinones including bazouanthrone, ferutinin A, harunganin, harunganol A, anthraquinones, saponins, steroids |
| Rotheca myricoides (Hochst.) Steane and Mabb | Leaves | Methanol | 9.51–10.56 and 82% parasite suppression at 600 mg/kg | No reports |
| Leucas calostachys Oliv. | Leaves | Methanol | 3.45 with parasite inhibition of 3.5–5.2% | No reports |
| Ajuga remota Benth. | Whole plant | Ethanol; decoction, ethanol, petroleum ether, methanol, and water | 55 (FCA/GHA), 57 (W2); 937, 55, 149, 504, 414 (FCA/GHA), 371, 57, 253, 493, 101 (W2) | Ajugarin-1, ergosterol-5,8-endoperoxide, 8-oacetylharpagide, steroids |
| Suregada zanzibariensis Baill | Root bark | Water, methanol | ≤10 (K67), (ENT36) | Alkaloids |
| Clerodendrum myricoides R. Br. | Root bark | Ethanol | 4.7 (D6); 8.3 (W2) | No reports |
| Chloroform | >10 (D6) | Cytotoxicity, IC50 > 20.0 μg/ml | ||
| Hoslundia opposita Vahl. | Leaves | Ethyl acetate | 66.2% inhibition of P. falciparum at 10 μg/ml | Quinones, saponins, abietane diterpenes (3-obenzoylhosloppone) |
| Roots; aerial parts | Methanol | 79.38 (D6), 64.21 (W2); 19.73 (D6), 29.41 (W2) | ||
| Leonotis nepetifolia | Leaves | Ethyl acetate, dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1), water | 27.0% inhibition of P. falciparum at 10 μg/ml, 15, >100 (D10) | No reports |
| Ocimum basilicum L. | Leaves, whole plant | Ethanol | 68.14 (3D7); 67.27 (INDO) | No reports |
| Ocimum gratissimum Wild | Leaves/twigs | Dichloromethane | 8.6 (W2) | Flavonoids |
| Ocimum suave Wild | Leaves | Water (hot), chloroform/methanol mixture | 100 mg/kg/day of extracts provided 81.45% and 78.39% parasite chemosuppression | |
| Plectranthus barbatus Andrews | Leaves | Dichloromethane | No activity | No toxicity recorded |
| Root bark | Water (hot), chloroform/methanol mixture | 100 mg/kg/day of extracts had 55.23% and 78.69% parasite chemosuppression | ||
| Azadirachta indica A. Juss. | Leaves | Water, methanol | 17.9 (D6); 43.7 (W2) | Terpenoids, isoprenoids, gedunin, limonoids: khayanthone, meldenin, and nimbinin; cytotoxicity LD50 of 101.26 and 61.43 μg/ml for water and methanol extracts |
| Melia azedarach | Leaves | Methanol, dichloromethane | 55.1 (3D7), 19.1 (W2); 28 | No reports |
| Ficus thonningii Blume | Leaves | Hexane | 10.4 | No reports |
| Cissampelos mucronata A. Rich. | Root bark, root | Methanol, ethyl acetate | 8.8 (D6); 9.2 (W2); root extract <3.91 (D6), 0.24 (W2) for the active compound (curine) | Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids, curine |
| Acacia nilotica L. | Stem bark | Methanol | 100 mg/kg produced 77.7% parasitic inhibition | Tannins, flavonoids, terpenes |
| Water, methanol | >250, 153.79 (ENT 30), 73.59, 70.33 (NF 54) | LD50 of 368.11 and 267.31 μg/ml for water and methanol extracts | ||
| Albizia coriaria Welw. ex Oliv | Stem bark | Methanol | 15.2 (D6); 16.8 (W2) | Triterpenoids, lupeol, lupenone |
| Ageratum conyzoides L. | Whole plant | Dichloromethane, methanol | 2.15 (D6); 3.444 (W2), 11.5 (D6); 12.1 (W2) | Flavonoids |
| Albizia zygia (DC.) Macbr. | Stem bark | Methanol | 1.0 (K1) | Flavonoids mainly 3′,4′,7-trihydroxyflavone; aqueous extract is relatively safe on subacute exposure |
| Maesa lanceolata Forsk. | Twig | Dichloromethane: methanol (1 : 1) | 5.9 (D10) | Lanciaquinones, 2,5, dihydroxy-3-(nonadec-14-enyl)-1,4-benzoquinone |
| Securidaca longipedunculata Fresen. | Leaves | Dichloromethane | 6.9 (D10) | Saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids |
| Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalkman | Stem bark | Methanol | 17.3 (D6); not detected (W2) | Terpenoids |
| Pentas longiflora Oliv. | Root | Methanol | 0.99 (D6); 0.93 (W2) | Pyranonaphthoquinones, pentalongin and psychorubrin, and naphthalene derivative mollugin; low cytotoxicity |
| Teclea nobilis Delile | Bark | 70% ethanol | 53.27% suppression of parasitemia at 700 mg/kg | Tannins, alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids |
| Ethyl acetate | 54.7% inhibition of P. falciparum at 10 μg/ml | Quinoline alkaloids | ||
| Toddalia asiatica | Root bark, fruits, and leaves | Methanol, water, ethyl acetate, hexane | 6.8 (D6); 13.9 (W2); ethyl acetate fruit extract (1.80 mg/ml), root bark aqueous (2.43) (W2) | Furoquinolines (nitidine and 5,6-dihydronitidine), coumarins; acute and cytotoxicity of the extracts, with the exception of hexane extract from the roots showed LD50 > 1000 mg/kg and CC50 > 100 mg/ml, respectively |
| Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. | Stem bark | Water | 4.3 (NF54); 25.1 (FCR3) | Chelerythine, nitidine, and methyl canadine; no toxicity recorded |
| Trimeria grandifolia (Hochst.) Warb. | Leaves | Methanol | >50 (3D7) | No reports |
| Harrisonia abyssinica Olive. | Roots | Water, methanol | 4.4 (D6), 10.25 (W2); 89.74, 79.50 (ENT 30); 86.56, 72.66 (NF 54) | Limonoids and steroids; LD50 of 234.71 and 217.34 μg/ml for water and methanol extracts |
| Lantana camara L. | Leaves, leaves/twigs | Dichloromethane, dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1), water | 8.7 (3D7), 5.7 (W2), 11 (D10), >100 (D10), >100 (D10) | Lantanine, sesquiterpenes, triterpenes, flavonoids |
| Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr. | Roots | Dichloromethane, dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1), water | 86.5 (D10), 78 (D10), >100 (D10) | No reports |
| Clausena anisata | Twigs, leaves | Dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1), water | 18 (D10), >100 (D10); 55, >100 (D10) | No reports |
| Flueggea virosa (Roxb.ex Willd.) Baill. | Leaves/twigs | Dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1), water | 19 (D10), 11.4 (D10) | Alkaloids, bergenin (root bark), securinine, and viroallosecurinine |
| Alkaloids: Securinine and viroallosecurinine had IC50 of 2.7 and 2.9 | ||||
| Lantana trifolia L. | Ariel parts | Petroleum ether, chloroform, ethanol | 13.2, >50, >50 (plasmodial lactate dehydrogenase) | Steroids, terpenoids, alkaloids, saponins |
| Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill. | Stem bark, leaves | Methanol | 158.7 (K1) | No reports |
| Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. | Root bark | Chloroform | 3.49 (D6) | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Sericocomopsis hildebrandtii | Root bark | Chloroform | 3.78 (D6) | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Boscia angustifolia | Inner bark | Chloroform | >10.0 (D6); not active | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Acacia tortilis | Root bark | Chloroform | >10.0 (D6); not active | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Commiphora schimperi | Inner bark | Chloroform | 4.63 (D6) | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Acacia mellifera | Inner bark | Chloroform | 4.48 (D6) | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Fuerstia africana | Leaf, aerial parts, leaves | Chloroform, petroleum ether, methanol | 3.76 (D6), 1.5, <15 with >70% parasite suppression | Ferruginol, cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Psiadia punctulata | Root bark | Chloroform | >10.0 (D6); not active | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-Ham | Leaves | Methanol | 35.17% at 800 mg/kg/day parasite suppression | Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, terpenoids, anthraquinone, steroids, tannins, phenols, and fatty acids; no lethal effect on mice in 24 h and within 10 days of observation |
| Albizia gummifera | Methanol | 0.16 (NF54), 0.99 (ENT 30) for alkaloidal fraction, spermine alkaloids had parasite suppression of 43–72% | Spermine alkaloids (budmunchiamine K, 6-hydroxybudmunchiamine K, 5-normethylbudmunchiamine K, 6-hydroxy-5-normethylbudmunchiamine K, 9-normethylbudmunchiamine K) | |
| Rhamnus staddo | Root bark | Chloroform | >10.0 (D6); not active | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Ocimum kilimandscharicum | Leaves, twigs | Dichloromethane | 0.843 (D6); 1.547 (W2) | No reports |
| Gutenbergia cordifolia | Leaves | Chloroform | 0.4 (D6) | Cytotoxicity IC50 = 0.2 μg/ml |
| Piper capense | Root bark | Chloroform | >10.0 (D6); not active | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Pentas lanceolata | Root bark | Chloroform | 5.15 (D6) | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Clematis brachiata | Root bark | Chloroform | 4.15 (D6) | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Ekebergia capensis | Inner bark, fruit, twigs | Chloroform, dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1) | 3.97 (D6), 10, 18 (D10) | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Rhamnus prinoides | Root bark | Chloroform | 3.53 (D6) | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Olea europaea ssp. Africana | Inner bark, leaves, twigs | Chloroform, dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1) | 9.48 (D6), 12, 13 (D10) | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Pappea capensis | Inner bark | Chloroform | >10.0 (D6); not active | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims | Whole plant, leaves/flowers | Dichloromethane, methanol, dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1) | 3, 10, 27.7, (D10), 28, 47, 70.5 (D10) | Triterpenoid estersaponin, pittoviridoside (saponins) |
| Podocarpus latifolius | Root bark | Chloroform | 6.43 (D6) | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. | Root | Dichloromethane | <15 | No reports |
| Rubus pinnatus Wild | Leaves | Ethanol | 20% parasite suppression | No reports |
| Zanthoxylum gilletii | Stem bark | Dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1) | 2.52 (W2), 1.48 (D6), 1.43 (3D7) | Nitidine, seas amine 8-acetyl dihydrochelerythrine |
| Solanum incanum L. | Leaves | Chloroform/methanol | 31% parasite suppression | No reports |
| Rhoicissus tridentata | Roots | Water | >40.0 | No reports |
| Acacia hockii | Root bark | Chloroform | >10.0 (D6); not active | Cytotoxicity IC50 > 20 μg/ml |
| Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng | Roots | Chloroform/ethyl acetate, methanol | 16.7, 40.6 (K39), 19.2, 40.1 (V1/S) | No reports |
| Roots, stem | Dichloromethane, methanol, dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1) | 3.8, 27, 24 (D10), 4.5, 21.8, 29.8 (D10) | ||
| Premna chrysoclada (Bojer) Gürke | Roots, leaves | Methanol | 27.63 (D6), 52.35 (W2); 7.75 (D6), 9.02 (W2) | Not cytotoxic at 100 μg/ml |
| Allophylus pervillei Blume | Roots, stem bark | Methanol | 45.62 (D6), 48.91 (W2); >100 (D6),>100 (W2) | Not cytotoxic at 100 μg/ml |
| Aganthesanthemum bojeri Klotzsch. | Whole plant | Methanol | 55.3 (D6), 55.97 (W2) | Not cytotoxic at 100 μg/ml |
| Abrus precatorius L. | Leaves | Methanol | 85.59 (D6), >100 (W2) | Not cytotoxic at 100 μg/ml |
| Combretum illairii Engl. | Stem bark, leaves | Methanol | 55.96 (D6), 58.54 (W2); 24.21 (D6), 33.31 (W2) | Not cytotoxic at 100 μg/ml |
| Grewia plagiophylla K. Schum | Leaves, stem bark | Methanol | 13.28 (D6), 34.2 (W2); >100 (D6), >100 (W2) | Not cytotoxic at 100 μg/ml |
| Combretum padoides Engl. & Diels | Roots | Methanol | 21.73 (D6), 59.43 (W2) | Not cytotoxic at 100 μg/ml |
| Uvaria acuminata | Leaves, roots | Methanol | 51.13 (D6), >100 (W2); 8.89 (D6), 6.90 (W2) | Cytotoxic with CC50 of 2.37 μg/ml. |
| Ormocarpum trachycarpum | Roots | Chloroform/ethyl acetate, methanol, water | 19.6, 41.7, 79.4 (K39); 17.5, 32.8 (V1/S) | No reports |
| Plectranthus sylvestris Gurke | Leaves | Chloroform/ethyl acetate, methanol | 41.1, 56.2 (K39); 61.0 (V1/S) | No reports |
| Turraea robusta | Root bark | Water, methanol | 25.32, 2.09 (D6), 42.41, 10.32 (W2) | IC50 of 24.38 and 45.72 μg/ml for methanol and aqueous extracts against Vero cells (cytotoxic) |
| Lannea schweinfurthii | Stem bark | Water, methanol | 10.55 and 75.90, 11.38 and 36.26 (D6 and W2) | IC50 of 225.25 and 3256.52 μg/ml for methanol and aqueous extracts against Vero cells |
| Sclerocarya birrea | Stem bark | Water, methanol | 18.96 and 71.74, 5.91 and 24.96 (D6 and W2) | IC50 of 361.24 and 3375.22 μg/ml for methanol and aqueous extracts against Vero cells |
| Withania somnifera | Stem bark | Water, methanol | >250, >250 (ENT 30); 145.86, 125.59 (NF 54) | LD50 of 301.44 and 207.27 μg/ml for water and methanol extracts |
| Zanthoxylum usambarense | Stem bark | Water, methanol | 14.33, 5.25 (ENT 30); 5.54, 3.20 (NF 54) | LD50 of 260.90 and 97.66 μg/ml for water and methanol extracts |
| Fagaropsis angolensis | Stem bark | Water, methanol | 10.65, 6.13 (ENT 30); 5.04, 4.68 (NF 54) | LD50 of 173.48 and 57.09 μg/ml for water and methanol extracts |
| Myrica salicifolia | Stem bark | Water, methanol | 85.97, 66.84 (ENT 30); 55.89, 51.07 (NF 54) | LD50 of 328.22 and 320.17 μg/ml for water and methanol extracts |
| Strychnos henningsii Gilg | Stem bark | Water, methanol | 73.39, 67.16 (ENT 30); 190.0, 159.71 (NF 54) | LD50 of 293.93 and 101.22 μg/ml for water and methanol extracts |
| Neoboutonia macrocalyx | Stem bark | Water, methanol | 92.85, 84.56 (ENT 30); 78.44, 78.40 (NF 54) | LD50 of 41.69 and 21.04 μg/ml for water and methanol extracts |
| Urtica massaica Mildbr. | Aerial parts | Hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, water, methanol | >100 (K39) | No reports |
| Uvaria scheffleri Diels | Leaves, stem, root bark | Petroleum ether, dichloromethane, methanol | 5–500 (K1) | Indole alkaloid-(±L)-schefflone, uvaretin, diuvaretin |
| Rauwolfia cothen | Root bark | Petroleum ether, dichloromethane, methanol | 0–499 (K1) | Yohimbine, an indole alkaloid |
| Tridax procumbens L. | Whole plant | Dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1), water | 17 (D10), >100 (D10) | Bergenin |
| Centella asiatica | Leaves | Dichloromethane/methanol (1 : 1) | 8.3 (D10) | Alkaloids, sesquiterpenes |
| Ficus sur | Stem bark | Hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, water, methanol | 19.2, 9.0, >100, >100, >100 (K39) | No reports |
| Euphorbia inaequilatera Sond. | Whole plant | Hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, water, methanol | 19.2, 9.0, >100, >100, >100 (K39) | No reports |
| Spermacoce princeae (K. Schum.) Verdc. | Whole plant | Hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, water, methanol | >100 (K39) | No reports |
| Senna occidentalis | Leaves | Dimethyl sulfoxide, ethanol | 48.80 (3D7), 54.28 (NIDO); <3; | Quinones |
| Ethanol, dichloromethane | >60% parasitemia suppression | |||
| Searsia natalensis (Bernh. ex C. Krauss) | Leaves | Chloroform | 1.8 (plasmodial lactate dehydrogenase) | No reports |
| Plasmodium falciparum isolates: D6, 3D7, D10, FCA/GHA (FCA: 20 GHA), FCR3, K39, and NF54 are chloroquine sensitive; DD2, ENT 30, FCR3, K1, NIDO, V1/S, and W2 are chloroquine resistant. For [48], control used for cytotoxicity study (vinblastine) had the effective dose to inhibit 50% growth (ED50) = 0.038 μg/ml. An ED50 greater than 20 μg/ml indicates that the plant extract lacks cytotoxicity. The control drug chloroquine had a toxicity of 17.4 μg/ml and IC50 of 0.004 μg/ml against D6 clone. | ||||